The Role Of The Police Criminology Essay

The Role Of The faithfulness Criminology analyseRoles be determined by social proportions, which be governed by accepted norms, and besides organism comprised of habits, utilisations argon not only when composed of obligations and responsibilities but also of skillfuls and privileges. Since a level of sizeableness is accorded to certain roles, those who occupy them w be to be awargon of and be committed to what the roles command of them (Kleinig, 1996). Therefore, where practice of honor is concerned, their roles to bring down the law and master(prenominal)(prenominal)tain unexclusive order, and they should be committed to them.The law are the major law enforcement agency and besides on a lower floortaking crime control, they byer 24-hour emergency good and also give an solely-purpose social service (Morgan Newburn, 1998). Since the duties of the constabulary patrolmans are diverse, as they as yet encompass social service, even if they are tentative d elinquent to lack of learning in that situation department, four flummoxs gather in been proposed by Kleinig (1996) so as to provide an correspondence of the roles and role negates of the legal philosophy officers. They are the Crime-fighter, the hint Operator, the fond Enforcer and the Social Peace-keeper.2.1.1 The Crime-fighterThis model, supported by the social contract theory, has serious drawbacks as it overshadows the main role of the legal philosophy and it r eradicateers constabulary force honorables meaningless. Police officers crime-fighter mode has a dualistic opinion on society. This dichotomy run lows to the categorisation of quite a little into both groups by the guard officer. It prevents the officer from having an impartial judgement and from fashioning the peculiarity amidst crimes, for example, shop-lifting and rape and cultivates the persistency to be alienated from the population, with attitudes ilk us and them (Kleinig, 1996).This model is popular amongst law officers beca map they see come to believe that their choice in the law enforcement depends on their capacity to control crime (Morgan Newburn, 1998). However, jurisprudence officers ought to currentise that by emphasising too much on the enforcement of law, that is, fighting crime, they are forgetting single fundamental aspect of policing, which is to be of service to the public (Morgan Newburn, 1998).2.1.2 The Emergency OperatorA 24-hour service is provided by the police, beca intake according to the emergency streetwalker model, the police rent to respond without whatsoever delay to the calls of help of the normal population. As emergency operators, these officers have to respond to various cases, ranging from unexpected childbirths, family fights, path accidents, drunken fights in the middle of the night, to the occasional incidents of crimes (Morgan Newburn, 1998).2.1.3 The Social Enforcer match to Bittner (1967) The role of the police is to ad dress all sorts of human problems when and insofar as the problems solution whitethorn require the use of force at the allude of occurrence.One of the core aspects of policing is the use of coercion to enforce the law and to contain public order, and as stated by Bittner, it is the unifying feature of police doing and the source of endorsement (Kleinig, 1996). To ensure crowd control and for sleepkeeping mission purposes, coercive functions are required, as well as to bring to an end family disputes and other confrontations. However, the role of the police does not revolve solely rough the powers of coercion but service to the citizens is equally important if not more than. Moreover, the volume of the public find the police intimidating and not all situations demand the use of force. Therefore, a model which reconciles the role of enforcing the law of police officers with the expectations of the public is required.2.1.4 The Social PeacekeeperAs said by Kleinig (1996) the social peacekeeper model accommodates more aptly the various tasks of the police officer. This model emphasises the role of the crime-fighter and the emergency operator. Although the model gives police officers the authority to use coercive force, more emphasis is displace upon the subservient character of policing. Studies have shown that peacekeeping is the primary function of the police (Morgan Newburn, 1998). Yet, it is important to note that fighting crime and ensuring peace and order in a society is not the craft of the police but of the citizens as well be driving force as they are part of the society, they also have the duty towards it, and they also should be committed to it.2.2 Ethics in PolicingPolice functions have existed as wide as human societies have existed (Kleinig, 1996) as the main tenet underlying police conduct and police exampleity are, for the first season the respect for human dignity and human rights and secondly, respect for the legal predominate and the principle of legality. It is essential that enforcing law and maintaining public order must be congruent with respect for the human mortal (Domingue, 2003). jibe to Sunahara (2002), discussions on morals entails discussions on races, therefore, any discussions on transactionhips is also synonymous of discussions closely the relationship between the police and the public. Even during arrest, detention and interrogation of suspects, maintenance of good standards is an important procedure. That is why the respect for human rights is the core principle of respectable policing, and policing in a democracy must be grounded on the combine of the population (Domingue, 2003).Since law enforcement is a profession, ethics and respectable conduct consort an important role. Ethics and ethical standards go through doing the right thing at the right snip in the right style for the right occasion (Grant, 2002). To gain the respect of the public, police officers must behave co rrectly all the time both on duty and off duty.According to the police cipher of ethics, an officers fundamental duties are to serve the connection, to protect plurality and airplane propeller alike, to protect the innocent against deception, the weak against oppression or intimidation, and the peaceful against forcefulness or disorder and respect the constitutional rights of all to liberty, equality and justice. The enter of ethics also states that officers must keep their private lives untarnished and deal the badge and the uni random variable as a symbol of public assurance and entrust (Grant, 2002). Unless they are put into practice, these codifications of ethics are mere words. The codes of ethics should have the same(p) value for the police officers as the sacred texts for the sacred individuals. What is essential is that police officers should act impartially, maintain confidentiality, make use of discretion, use force only when necessary and or so importantly poli ce officers should have got integrity. Ideally, by adhering to the codes of conduct, the officers volition perform their duties correctly, according to procedures, and ultimately, no angiotensin converting enzyme, neither the media nor the public volition tarnish the image of the police but in earth this is not what happens.Given the constitution of the police hold up, the public has a clear-sighted interest in it because policing is like a moral crucible in which the risk of infections taken by the police and the prospects for moral actions are magnified (Cohen Feldberg, 1991). This examination on the behalf of the general public is probably due to the fact that the police officers are the guardians of law and order in a participatory society. any misconduct or mistake is exacerbated by the general public because the latter(prenominal)(prenominal) holds the belief that police officers should be the pillars of morality. Moreover, it is generally expected that officers, with no time for pondering, should act quickly and confidently in situations where the outcome is not readily anticipated (Cohen Feldberg, 1991).Nonetheless, one should not expect police ethics to differentiate a distinctive type of ethics, but rather to be the case of a more general ethics within the police context. The ethical demands on police under which all are placed, by lawfulness of ballpark humanity, they are demands coloured by the specific roles that the police have and shaped by the circumstances under which they must decide (Kleinig, 1996).2.3 respectable Issues characterd by the Police ForceFor an objective subject area on police digression, it is necessary to define the term deviance. In simple terms, deviance is delineate as deportment which is totally unalike from or unsufferable by the norms and standards of society. However, given the complexity and the range of norms and values affecting the police, the study of deviance within the police demands an understanding of the difference in norms uttered at the legal, system of rulesal, and internal levels (Kappeler, Sluder Alport, 1998). The discovery of police deviance is almost voiceless to detect, but there exist some generally acceptable standards which prise the acceptability of behaviour. There are twain groups of ethical standards which govern the police conduct, the first group being the external standards which include constitutional, criminal and accomplished laws. The external standards apply to both the police and the general public. The second strict of standards is internal standards, which are the departmental policies, procedures, and regulations, and apply solely to the police (Kappeler et al., 1998).However, disdain the existence of rules and laws governing police deviance, deviant police officers are a reality which chiffoniernot be ignored. When there are these types of occurrences, the responses are rather negative, depending on who observed the devian t(s). On a first level, depending on the gravity of the act, the officer will have to be sanctioned secondly, if the deviant behaviour has been discovered by a member of the press, then most probably the bet would be blown out of proportion so as to succumb the information sensational, and thirdly, there would be a decrease in trust for the police by the general public (Kappeler et al., 1998).Before embarking on the different types of deviance, it is important to understand the classification of the forms of misconduct. According to OConnor (2006), they are classified asMalfeasance intentional commission of a forbidden act or intentional unjust cognitive impact of some act which the party had no right (e.g., gratuity, perjury)Misfeasance performance of a duty or act that one is compel or permitted to do in a manner which is improper or negligent (e.g., report writing, aggressively reprimanding a citizen, improper searching of arrestees)Nonfeasance di judge to perform an act which one is obligated to do either by law or directive due to slackness or tribulation to recognise the obligation (e.g., failure to file a report, improper gimmick and search, security breach)2.3.1 Types of Police Deviance2.3.1.1 Affective and Discriminatory ActsAffective acts involve the expressions of emotions, but not all emotional acts lead to police misconduct, as behaviour driven by emotions female genitalia lead to positive results (Sunahara, 2002). However, affective acts become deviant when it leads to overly aggressive behaviour, which makes the officer to fleshlyly or verbally assault a suspect, and such behaviours are against the police code of conduct, and frowned upon by the general population.Discriminatory acts are actions resulting from the negative assessment of a mortals group characteristics (Sunahara, 2002). These acts put forward be translated into racism, xenophobia, homophobia, or they can be order towards the marginalised individuals (for e.g., t hose people who are from deprived areas or homeless someones) and people belong to minority groups.2.3.1.2 Police ShakedownPolice Shakedown occurs when a police officer extorts a business owner for protection money and it arises principally with bars, prostitution rings, drug dealing and illegal gambling (Domingue, 2005). Extortion is characterised by any form of taking or obtaining property from another person by means of illegal compulsion or oppressive exaction. In common law it is specify as a crime committed by an officer of law, who, under cover of office, unlawfully takes any money or other valuable.2.3.1.3 Police PerjuryPerjury is generally defined as the false statement made under oath with respect to a solid study, either in legal proceeding, as by attester at a trial, or in matters in which an oath is authoritative or required by law. In this case, it would be the officer liberal a false testimony. Police perjury is amounted to an act of bobbleion as the officer w ould be lying commission or by omission so as to ensure that the perpetrator is punished. It has been observed that most acts of perjury are committed by good cops who believe that the criminal would be acquitted if not for their lie (OConnor, 2006).2.3.1.4 Police Brutality and Abuse of billetAccording to OConnor (2006), police viciousness is defined as force, name-calling, sarcasm, ridicule, and disrespect, which is a milder commentary of police viciousness unlike Kania and Mackeys (1977) much harsher definition, who view police brutality as unwarranted violence which does not help the legitimate police purpose. Besides, brutality in the police also involves abusive language, threats of implied violence, and actual use of physical force (Domingue, 2003).Police Brutality occurs in concurrence with police perjury as officers who commit police brutality will most in all probability lie on the stand to prevent the possibility of a lawsuit or departmental charges.In the Mauritian context, police brutality as coverd by the public is a real scourge. According to the Mauritian press, some police officers view their uniform as a sign of superiority, which also give them a sense of immunity to punishments and reprimands (LExpress, 2007). As stated by the same article, the Police Complaints Investigation Bureau stock some 400 complaints of physical and verbal abuse in 2003.However, in Mauritius Times (2005) the reasons given for such acts committed by the law enforcement officials were the long hours put by the police, which in the case of some, lead them to lose their calm, the latter also deal with habitual criminals and people who would not think twice before attacking the police or miscellanea their statements.2.3.1.5 Police decadenceAccording to the Select Committee on Fraud and Corruption in December 2001It is impossible to measure the actual extent of corruption in Mauritius. Corruption leaves no visible trace, no blood stain and no finger prints. It is a consensual crime shrouded in secrecy. The participants are willing, consent and happy. Not a crime of passion, corruption thrives on secrecy and silence. It is only when a person smell outs cheated or is actuated by a exalted sense of duty and loyalty that he will report an example of corruption. Rarely does a participant have an interest in unveil the deal. Few crimes are as hard as to prove. Perceived to be a victimless crime, it has a devastating effect on our livelihoodThis micro excerpt was on the general occurrences of corruption. Police corruption is form o police deviance, and is an extension of the definition of corruption as given by the Select Committee (2001). However, to put in simpler words corruption is defined as the abuse of police authority for personal or organisational gain. This comes in many shapes and sizes, from the major drug trafficking and money laundering to looking the other way on minor eitherday violations of the law (Grant, 2002).Corruption c an be broken down into two sections, internal and external corruption. sockledgeable corruption is the illegal acts and agreements within a police department by more than one of the officers. External corruption is the illegal acts and agreements with the public by one or more officers in a department. For a corrupt act to occur, trio distinct elements of police corruption must be collapse simultaneously firstly, injure of authority, secondly, misuse of official capacity, and lastly misuse of personal attainment (Holloway, 2002).2.4 Moral Dimensions of PolicingDuring the pre-World War era, the idea of police ethics faceed to be contradictory, as it was portrayed progressive but few police officers advocated its practice and fewer civilians demanded it (Cohen Feldberg, 1991). However, this is not the case nowadays because the public are now more keenly interested in the genius and minutes of policing. This is so because the nature of the occupation in this particular domain is like a moral crucible, in which the risks taken by the police officers and the opportunities for moral actions are magnified. This scrutiny by the public is probably due to the fact that these officers act as the guardians of law and order in a elective society.The general population also has the mistaken belief that, given the nature of the seduce, police officers need to be pillars of morality. In this context, it is expected of the officers to act, with no time for pondering, quickly and authoritatively in situations where the outcomes are not readily anticipated. On top of that, these officers are accountable for every event and/or every choice made. In this line of work, every action and non-action carries a moral weight for the officer.One of the key aspects of policing is discretion, which serves to help the officers in maintaining their duties as societys peace keepers and law enforcers. Nevertheless, this powerful tool that discretion represents is restrained by the la ws and rules (for example, the code of conduct for police officers), which govern the actions of the police. Police officers, as figures wielding authority, are not sub free agents. For example, for the arrest of a suspect, they have to follow a certain procedure. This is illustrated by making sure that an arrest is lawful. Therefore, it is imperative that the reasons for the arrest, the power and the identity of the arresting officers are known (Domingue, 2005).However, despite the efforts employed to square up police work, there is a degree of opportunity for options and choices in the performance of the personal credit line. According to Jerome Skolnick (1966), the work of the police is such that even the most chip work contains an element of discretion. The officer has the freedom to be a stunner of the violations of law and order, which will lead to a subsequent arrest or he/she can phone number a blind eye on such illegal occurrences. The officer has also the choice to en d a dispute (for example, municipal dispute or dispute among neighbours) quickly or can hand over the case to a chat up salesclerk or lawyer and make the matter drag in court for a long period of time (Cohen Feldberg, 1991). The gist of the matter in this case is that the officer has the opportunity to make use of discretion, that is, make determinations on his or her own, almost on a daily basis and the occurrences are more frequent when the officer is on field. other important matter to be taken in to favor here is that a crucial part of policing involves the use of authority and coercion. According to Kleinig (1996), the concept of authority understands a complex unity. The term authority can be subdivided into three forms of authorityPositional or de jure authority (i.e., where the individual is in authority),Actual or de facto authority (i.e., where the individual has authority), andExpert authority (i.e., when the individual is an authority).It is usually claimed that th ese three forms of authority are conceptually independent because someone who has authority does not necessarily mean that he or she is in an authority or is an authority. The same argument goes for the other two forms of authority.Authority is not a property which people possess but is essentially a prescriptive social relation, i.e., a status which is granted. An individual who is in authority or has authority or is an authority, is one which is recognized by others as being in position to do or require or know about the object of authority. An important matter to be taken into consideration is that authority is often associated with power. But in many circumstances, where the police officers are concerned, this power is regulated by laws and rules. The underlying notion of authority is the self-reliance that the officer (or any individual) is in the know (Kleinig, 1996). This does not mean that the person is an expert about the object of authority.Police authority is a form of g overnmental authority and if the government loses credibility in the eye of the public, this will be reflected in the authority perceived to possess by the police. As authority figures, police officers are met with hostility on behalf of the public, because as law enforcers and maintainers of public order, they have as one of their duties to execute unpopular policies. In such cases, they are seen as oppressive rather than authoritative. Another component part which makes the public more hostile towards the law enforcement officials is the use of coercion. But coercive force is required in policing and it becomes a moral problem because coercion is both permitted and limited (Cohen Feldberg, 1991). It is important to take into account that Police tend to have no greater moral insight or powers of epitome than the rest of us, but they have jobs that throw them into more perilous situations (italics added, Cohen Feldberg, 1991, pg. 6).2.5 assay in Policing2.5.1 Definition of Stre ssStress is the condition that results when person- purlieu transactions lead the individual to perceive a discrepancy, whether real or not, between the demands of a situation and the resources of the persons biological, psychological or social systems. In medical terms, puree is the disruption of homeostasis through physical or psychological stimuli. Stressful stimuli can be mental, physiological, anatomical or physical reactions. The term melodic phrase in this context was coined by Austro-Canadian endocrinologist Hans Selye, who defined the General Adaptation Syndrome or gun paradigm in 1936.Stress is a complex term to define. Its simplest definition might be that it is an event or situation that forces a person to adapt to the event. Stress is the event itself and the reaction to that event within the person experiencing it. Thus stress is completely subjective. What may be trying to one person might be pleasant or fun to another. Flying, for example, can cause some people t o develop anxieties and panic attacks while others deal to fly and look forward to the flight. What is more, everyones body responds in the same way to a stressful event, or any event for that matter, but the people that suffer from stress related illness and problems find it hard to turn their bodys response off.Psychological stress is more to do with the turning off of the bodys stress responses to a situation. The bodys stress response is to increase the flow of hormones epinephrin and cortisol in the bloodstream. This has the affect of raising the heart rate, redirecting blood from the extremities and place upright to the vital organs, changing the consistency of the blood for potential injury and making our senses more aware.Psychological stress may have evolved from a real event that caused an emotional disturbance in the past. This event may have been the messy splitting up from a relationship that leads to emotional pain. As the event recedes into the past other sentiment s within the persons psyche tend to cause anxiety and stress. So the person might feel unattractive to the setback sex or lose confidence in socialising with people. These issues will cause stress for the person and can lead to other behaviours that rush stress. They may find it hard to stay focussed or feel that their personality is disintegrating or get anxiety attacks.2.5.2. Work-related StressWork-related stress is the process that where work demands of various types and combinations exceed the persons capacity and capability to cope. It is a pregnant cause of illness and infirmity and is known to be linked with postgraduate levels of sickness absence, staff turnover and other indicators of organisational underperformance including human error.Occupational stress is defined as the mind-body arousal resulting from the physical and/or psychological job demands. The appraisal of a stressor as threatening leads to anxiety and anger and the associated activation of the autonom ic nervous system. If severe and persistent, the resulting physical and psychological strain may elicit adverse behavioural consequences (Spielberger et al., 2003).A healthy job is likely to be one where the pressures on employees are appropriate in relation to their abilities and resources, to the amount of control they have over their work, and to the support they receive from people who matter to them. As health is not merely the absence of disease or infirmity but a positive state of complete physical, mental and social well-being (WHO, 1986), a healthy working environment is one in which there is not only an absence of toxic conditions but an abundance health-promoting ones. A healthy work environment is one in which staff have made health and health promotional material a priority and part of their working lives.2.5.3. Work-related Stress amongst Police OfficersPolice stress can be put wherever there is carrying into action police officers. Unlike any other work-related s tress, interrogation has proved that causes and do of stress amongst police officers are more pronounced and unique among law enforcement officers (Finn Tomz, 1996). Law enforcement is considered to be one of the most stressful occupations which results in domestic violence, alcoholism, suicide, and other emotional and health problems (Anderson King, 1991).Exposure to police stressors can lead to serious physical and psychological health problems, and these problems can result in reduced work productivity, increased absenteeism, higher turnover and so on (Parsons, 2004). In a study carried out by Mandy Larcombe in 2007) it was found that stress among police officers was such an issue in years 2004 and 2005 that about 250,000 days were lost across the United Kingdom police forces due to stress related illnesses, which had amounted to a loss of 40M a year, and 20 part of those police officers had exhibited symptoms of depression.2.5.3.1 Sources of Stress for Police OfficersDiffer ent officers are likely to perceive different events as stressful, depending on their individual background, personalities, expectations, law enforcement experience, years on the job, type of police work they perform, and access to coping resources (Kirschman et al., 1992). Nevertheless, the sources of stress which seem to be common among police officers fall into three main categoriesOrganisational Stressors running(a) Stressors, andStress related to the individual officers personal life and approach to stressful events.2.5.3.1.1 Organisational StressorsAlthough many people perceive the danger and tension of law enforcement work (glamorised in books, movies, and television shows) to be the most serious stress for officers, enquiry has shown that much of the stress felt by police officers emanate from the organisation itself.Kahn and Byosiere (1992) categorized stressors in organisational life into two groups termed task content and role properties. Task content stressors are the ph ysical aspects of organizational life that characterise the task at hand including its complexity, simplicity, or monotony and the physical conditions under which it must be carried out, such as extreme temperatures, equipment inadequacies or excessive noise. Role properties on the other hand, are the psychosocial aspects of organisational life, which characterise the social nature of the job including role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload and interpersonal relations between superior officers and subordinate personnel.2.5.3.1.1.A Task ContentIt is generally fake that police officers often work in dire physical conditions, for example, patrolling in adverse weather conditions which may lead to stress. However, the feeling of stress may be compounded by substandard equipment and facilities. In addition to the physical conditions, police work cannot be said to be simple. Policing a democratic society is exceedingly complex (Goldstein, 1977) and the opportunity for contradictio n is always present (Kinnane, 1979). Police-citizen encounters occur within a defined set of laws, rules and regulations which is ever increase and indistinct, where decisions are not differentiated into right and wrong, yes or no. The decision environment is often vague and less than ideal, which may not produce the ideal result.More than often, police work is monotonous and tedious, especially during nightshift. tediousness is punctuated by brief periods of excitement that raise and lower physiological responses to the stimuli creating wear (Coman and Evans, 1991 Dwyer, 1991), which may weaken judgment, slow reaction time and increase the risk that a police officer will respond in an inappropriate manner (Lauber and Kayten, 1988).2.5.3.1.1.B Role PropertiesRole properties are also referred to as the psychosocial aspects of the work environment, which involve relations with co-workers and supervisors.2.5.3.1.1.B(i) Role ConflictRole conflict is defined as the perpetual differenc es regarding the content of the role or the relative importance of its elements (Muchinsky,1996). These differences may occur among the police officers who may not have the same role expectations. One example which may portray role conflict among the police officers is their role as Social Peace-keeper and that of Crime fighter.The conflict emanates from these two models where the police officer is expected to deal aggressively against criminal behaviour while at the same time, protect the constitutional rights of the citizens. The contrast between what the police are expected to do and what the police actually do is enormous. Unfortunately, the police function suffers from numerous conflicts, contradictions and ambiguities that are not easily resolved. Another instance of role conflict stems from the paradox between police training and the realities of police work.2.5.3.1.1.B(ii) Role OverloadMuchinsky (1997308) defines role overload as a variant of role conflict in which conflict is experienced as a necessity to compromise either quantity, time schedule or quality. Todays police officers are being told to work faster in the face of an increasing workload that is set within longer shifts (Heiler, 1998 Winefield et. al, 2002). Some research differentiates the concept of role overload as too much work (quantitative) and work that is too difficult (qualitative) (Cooper and Marshall, 1977).2.5.3.1.1.B(iii) Role AmbiguityRole ambiguity is derived from the symbolism and rhetoric proffered by police departments to legitimize aspects of its behaviour. Top police administrators often resort to symbolic measures and rhetoric to preserve the status quo and to get to favourable public impressions (Lorinskas et al., 1985). Symbolic statements or perfunctory policies serve a variety of functions, many of which police executives use to shape the workforce and community sentiment for the agency and its policies instead of making any substantive change (Kelling, 2008).2.5.3. 1.2 Operational StressorsAlthough organisational factors and policies may be the most widespread and frustrating sources of stress for many law enforcement personnel, there are occasions when the work itself constitute a source of stress. Operational stressors ar